metaconglomerate foliated

Marble is metamorphosed limestone. Names given to rocks that are sold as building materials, especially for countertops, may not reflect the actual rock type. Under extreme conditions of heat and pressure, Contact metamorphism of various different rock types. In only a few places in the world, the subduction process was interrupted, and partially subducted blueschist returned to the surface. A rock that is dominated by aligned crystals of amphibole. It is intermediate in grade between slate and schist. The general term for the property of alignment in metamorphic rock is foliation, of which there are a number of types. The Origin of Earth and the Solar System, Chapter 8. Rocks that form from regional metamorphism are likely to be foliated because of the strong directional pressure of converging plates. A large intrusion will contain more thermal energy and will cool much more slowly than a small one, and therefore will provide a longer time and more heat for metamorphism. Chlorite and serpentine are both hydrated minerals, containing water in the form of OH in their crystal structures. Thus, they are not always 'planar' in the strictest sense and may violate the rule of being perpendicular to the regional stress field, due to local influences. Conglomerate is easily identifiable by the pebbles or larger clasts in a matrix of sand, silt, or clay. Foliated - those having directional layered aspect of showing an alignment of particles like gneiss. Granofels is a broad term for medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rocks that do not exhibit any specific foliation. It is a low-grade metamorphic rock that splits into thin pieces. Crenulation cleavage and oblique foliation are particular types of foliation. Usually, this is the result of some physical force and its effect on the growth of minerals. Metaconglomerate & Metabreccia > Metaconglomerate and metabreccia are variably metamorphosed conglomerates and breccias that may or may not be foliated. The various types of foliated metamorphic rocks, listed in order of the grade or intensity of metamorphism and the type of foliation are slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss (Figure 7.8). takes place at cool temperatures but high pressure. Click on image to see enlarged photo. On the other hand, any clay present in the original sandstone is likely to be converted to mica during metamorphism, and any such mica is likely to align with the directional pressure. A fine-grained rock that splits into wavy sheets. Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition by Karla Panchuk is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. There are two main types of metamorphism: There are two types of textures on metamorphic rocks: Think of foliated rocks as something that is foiled. answer choices. Specific patterns of foliation depend on the types of minerals found in the original rock, the size of the mineral grains and the way pressure is applied to the rock during metamorphosis. Slate is a foliated metamorphic rock that is formed through the metamorphism of shale. The low-grade metamorphism occurring at these relatively low pressures and temperatures can turn mafic igneous rocks in ocean crust into greenstone (Figure 6.27), a non-foliated metamorphic rock. Soapstone is a relatively soft metamorphic rock and absorbs and holds heat well, so it is often used around fireplaces and woodstoves. This is a megascopic version of what may occur around porphyroblasts. Usually, this represents the protolith chemistry, which forms distinct mineral assemblages. Jurassic metaconglomerate bij Los Peasquitos Canyon Preserve , San Diego County, Californi . Non-foliated textures have minerals that are not aligned. Foliated rock is also known as S-tectonite in sheared rock masses. Phyllite is a third type of foliated metamorphic rock. 30 seconds. The classification of metamorphic rocks is based on the minerals that are present and the temperature and pressure at which these minerals form. A rock list of types of foliated metamorphic specimens includes gneiss, schist, phyllite and slate. This is related to the axis of folds, which generally form an axial-planar foliation within their axial regions. At subduction zones, where ocean lithosphere is forced down into the hot mantle, there is a unique combination of relatively low temperatures and very high pressures. The location of the wings depends on the distribution of stress on the rock (Figure 10.10, upper right). This article related to petrology is a stub. Over all, the photomicrograph shows that the rock is dominated by elongated crystals aligned in bands running from the upper left to the lower right. Where slate is typically planar, phyllite can form in wavy layers. mineral cleavage. Question 14. Contact metamorphic aureoles are typically quite small, from just a few centimeters around small dykes and sills, to as much as 100 m around a large stock. The layers form parallel to the direction of the shear, or perpendicular to the direction of higher pressure. Phyllite Rock Type: Metamorphic - A low to intermediate grade metamorphic rock produced from the metamorphism of shale. Foliated metamorphic rocks exhibit layers or stripes caused by the elongation and alignment of minerals in the rock as it undergoes metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks can be foliated, displaying banding or lamellar texture, or non-foliated. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. c. hydrothermal. Quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone (Figure 7.11). Typical examples of metamorphic rocks include porphyroblastic schists where large, oblate minerals form an alignment either due to growth or rotation in the groundmass. The protolith for slate is shale, and sometimes fossils that were present in the original rock can be seen in freshly sheared layers of slate. Most gneiss has little or no mica because it forms at temperatures higher than those under which micas are stable. An example of a synthetic material is the one referred to as quartz, which includes ground-up quartz crystals as well as resin. It is common to use the terms granite and marble to describe rocks that are neither. Introduction to Geology of the Oceans, 17a Introduction to Human Relationships with Earth Processes. Quartzite: Formed by the metamorphism of pure quartz sandstone. Non-foiliated - those having homogeneous or massive texture like marble. . The sudden change associated with shock metamorphism makes it very different from other types of metamorphism that can develop over hundreds of millions of years, starting and stopping as tectonic conditions change. The resulting rock, which includes both metamorphosed and igneous material, is known as a migmatite (Figure 7.9). It is foliated, crenulated, and fine-grained with a sparkly appearance. Figure 6.10 Metaconglomerate with elongated of quartz pebbles. The specimen above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. Marble and hornfels are metamorphic rock types that typically do not typically show observable foliation. Learn how BCcampus supports open education and how you can access Pressbooks. Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets. Often this foliation is associated with diagenetic metamorphism and low-grade burial metamorphism. Springer. The slatey cleavage typical of slate is due to the preferred orientation of microscopic phyllosilicate crystals. HyperPhysics*****Geophysics: Although bodies of magma can form in a variety of settings, one place magma is produced in abundance, and where contact metamorphism can take place, is along convergent boundaries with subduction zones, where volcanic arcs form (Figure 6.31). As metamorphic processes go, burial metamorphism takes place at relatively low temperatures (up to ~300 C) and pressures (100s of m depth). Similarly, a gneiss that originated as basalt and is dominated by amphibole, is an amphibole gneiss or, more accurately, an amphibolite. The passage of this water through the oceanic crust at these temperatures promotes metamorphic reactions that change the original olivine and pyroxene minerals in the rock to chlorite ((Mg5Al)(AlSi3)O10(OH)8) and serpentine ((Mg,Fe)3Si2O5(OH)4). The lower temperatures exist because even though the mantle is very hot, ocean lithosphere is relatively cool, and a poor conductor of heat. Examples of nonfoliated rocks include: hornfels, marble, novaculite, quartzite, and skarn. Generally, the acute intersection angle shows the direction of transport. This planar character can be flat like a piece of slate or folded. Protoliths are transformed chemically and physically by high temperatures, high pressures, hot fluids or some combination of these conditions. Principles of Earth Science by Katharine Solada and K. Sean Daniels is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. This is illustrated in Figure 7.6, where the parent rock is shale, with bedding as shown. Traces of Catastrophe: A Handbook of Shock-Metamorphic Effects in Terrestrial Meteorite Impact Structures. Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have undergone a change from their original form due to changes in temperature, pressure or chemical alteration. [1] Foliation is common in rocks affected by the regional metamorphic compression typical of areas of mountain belt formation (orogenic belts). The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. Lapis Lazuli, the famous blue gem material, is actually a metamorphic rock. Foliated metamorphic rocks are named for their style of foliation. Most of the blueschist that forms in subduction zones continues to be subducted. Foliated metamorphic rocks have a layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and directed pressure. The larger size gives the foliation a slighly shiny appearance. It has a bright, lustrous appearance and breaks with a semi-conchoidal fracture. Different minerals will form depending on the exact temperature and the nature of the country rock. Shale, slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, partial melting Match each rock with its first-order metamorphic equivalent (the first rock it would turn into when metamorphosed). Protolith Basalt Conglomerate Dolostone Limestone Granite Sandstone Shale Metamorphic rock Amphibolite Gneiss Marble Metaconglomerate Quartzite Slate Basalt-Amphibolite of rock masses in, for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction. The round objects in the photo are lapis lazuli beads about 9/16 inch (14 millimeters) in diameter. Slate, for example, is characterized by aligned flakes of mica that are too small to see. Regional metamorphism refers to large-scale metamorphism, such as what happens to continental crust along convergent tectonic margins (where plates collide). Metaconglomerate: Non-foliated: Metamorphism of conglomerate: Metamorphic Rock . Metaconglomerate is composed of pebbles and gravel that have been flattened due to directed pressure. Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets. Non-foliated rocks - quartzite, marble, hornfels, greenstone, granulite ; Mineral zones are used to recognize metamorphic facies produced by systematic pressure and temperature changes. Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks, Chapter 17: Humans' Relationship to Earth Processes, Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition, Next: 6.5 Metamorphic Facies and Index Minerals, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. The tendency of slate to break into flat pieces is called slaty cleavage. Schist and gneiss can be named on the basis of important minerals that are present. Where the object hits, pressures and temperatures become very high in a fraction of a second. The minerals that will melt will be those that melt at lower temperatures. Foliated - those having directional layered aspect of showing an alignment of particles like gneiss. Non-foliated textures have minerals that are not aligned. Types of Foliated Metamorphic Rocks is another name for thermal metamorphism. If stress from all directions is equal, place all thin arrows. It is a rock of intermediate metamorphic grade between phyllite and gneiss. Massive (non-foliated) structure. If you happen to be in the market for stone countertops and are concerned about getting a natural product, it is best to ask lots of questions. As a rock heats up, the minerals that melt at the lowest temperatures will melt first. Quartzite is composed of quartz sand grains. If a rock is buried to a great depth and encounters temperatures that are close to its melting point, it will partially melt. List of Geologically Important Elements and the Periodic Table. It is composed primarily of hornblende (amphibole) and plagioclase, usually with very little quartz. . Foliation may be formed by realignment of micas and clays via physical rotation of the minerals within the rock. Granite may form foliation due to frictional drag on viscous magma by the wall rocks. In the formation of schist, the temperature has been hot enough so that individual mica crystals are visible, and other mineral crystals, such as quartz, feldspar, or garnet may also be visible. Gneissic banding is the easiest of the foliations to recognize. Samantha Fowler; Rebecca Roush; and James Wise, 1.2 Navigating Scientific Figures and Maps, 2.2 Forming Planets from the Remnants of Exploding Stars, 5.2 Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks, 5.4 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins, 6.4 Types of Metamorphism and Where They Occur, 6.5 Metamorphic Facies and Index Minerals, 6.6 Metamorphic Hydrothermal Processes and Metasomatism, 7.1 Alfred Wegener's Arguments for Plate Tectonics, 7.2 Global Geological Models of the Early 20th Century, 7.3 Geological Renaissance of the Mid-20th Century, 7.4 Plates, Plate Motions, and Plate-Boundary Processes, 8.2 Materials Produced by Volcanic Eruptions, 8.7 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions, 9.5 Forecasting Earthquakes and Minimizing Impacts, 10a. Related questions What are some example names of foliated and un-foliated rocks? The blueschist at this location is part of a set of rocks known as the Franciscan Complex (Figure 6.29). Metamorphic rocks that form under either low-pressure conditions or just confining pressure do not become foliated. If the original limestone was pure calcite, then the marble will likely be white (as in Figure 7.10), but if it had various impurities, such as clay, silica, or magnesium, the marble could be marbled in appearance. Provide reasonable names for the following metamorphic rocks: Physical Geology by Steven Earle is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. The collisions result in the formation of long mountain ranges, like those along the western coast of North America. This happens because the stress can cause some parts of the quartz crystals to dissolve, and the resulting ions flow away at right angles to the greatest stress before forming crystals again. It is composed of alternating bands of dark and light minerals. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced from the metamorphism of limestone or dolostone. At higher pressures and temperatures, grains and crystals in the rock may deform without breaking into pieces (Figure 6.34, left). In contrast, nonfoliated metamorphic rocks do not contain minerals that align during metamorphism and do not appear layered. This is probably because nonfoliated rocks were exposed to high temperature conditions, but not to high directional pressure conditions. [1] The word comes from the Latin folium, meaning "leaf", and refers to the sheet-like planar structure. A gentle impact can hit with 40 GPa and raise temperatures up to 500 C. Foliation in areas of shearing, and within the plane of thrust faults, can provide information on the transport direction or sense of movement on the thrust or shear. Phyllitic foliation is composed of platy minerals that are slightly larger than those found in slaty cleavage, but generally are still too small to see with the unaided eye. The mineral crystals dont have to be large to produce foliation. The deeper rocks are within the stack, the higher the pressures and temperatures, and the higher the grade of metamorphism that occurs. Foliation. However, compositional banding can be the result of nucleation processes which cause chemical and mineralogical differentiation into bands. Metamorphic differentiation, typical of gneisses, is caused by chemical and compositional banding within the metamorphic rock mass. In gneiss, the foliation is more typically represented by compositional banding due to segregation of mineral phases. For rocks at the surface, the true starting point for the rock cycle would be (a) igneous (b) sedimentary (c) metamorphic. > The cement between the clasts is recrystallized, so the rock breaks across the clasts (instead of around the clasts in a sedimentary conglomerate). Image copyright iStockPhoto / RobertKacpura. Thus, aureoles that form around wet intrusions tend to be larger than those forming around their dry counterparts. Whether you need help solving quadratic equations, inspiration for the upcoming science fair or the latest update on a major storm, Sciencing is here to help. 2.1 Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, and Atoms, 4.5 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions, 5.3 The Products of Weathering and Erosion, 6.3 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins, 7.5 Contact Metamorphism and Hydrothermal Processes, 9.1 Understanding Earth through Seismology, 10.1 Alfred Wegener the Father of Plate Tectonics, 10.2 Global Geological Models of the Early 20th Century, 10.3 Geological Renaissance of the Mid-20th Century, 10.4 Plates, Plate Motions, and Plate-Boundary Processes, 11.5 Forecasting Earthquakes and Minimizing Damage and Casualties, 15.1 Factors That Control Slope Stability, 15.3 Preventing, Delaying, Monitoring, and Mitigating Mass Wasting, 21.2 Western Canada during the Precambrian, Chapter 22 The Origin of Earth and the Solar System, Karla Panchuk, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 22.2 Forming Planets from the Remnants of Exploding Stars, Appendix 1 List of Geologically Important elements and the Periodic Table, Chapter 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks. If the hornfels formed in a situation without directed pressure, then these minerals would be randomly orientated, not foliated as they would be if formed with directed pressure. Foliation can develop in a number of ways. - Examples: quartzite derived from the metamorphism of sandstone, and marble derived from the metamorphism of limestone or dolostone. Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually while buried deep below Earth's surface. Various minerals, gems, and even precious metals can sometimes be found in skarn. Lavas may preserve a flow foliation, or even compressed eutaxitic texture, typically in highly viscous felsic agglomerate, welded tuff and pyroclastic surge deposits. Some examples of foliated rocks include. A very hard rock with a granular appearance and a glassy lustre. The pebbles in this sample are not aligned and elongated as in the metaconglomerate in Figure 10.10. VALLEY, John W.1, CAVOSIE, A.J., WILDE, S.A., GRANT, M., and LIU, Dunyi, http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002AM/finalprogram/abstract_39602.htm, ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2002/2002034.pdf, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metaconglomerate&oldid=1007375955, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 17 February 2021, at 20:28. It often contains significant amounts of mica which allow the rock to split into thin pieces. Notice: Unless otherwise noted, all images and graphics contained within are the property of Richard Harwood and may only be reproduced with permission from the author. Rock cleavage is what caused the boulder in Figure 10.8 to split from bedrock in a way that left the flat upper surface upon which the geologist is sitting. Hornfels is a fine-grained nonfoliated metamorphic rock with no specific composition. The specimen shown above is a "chlorite schist" because it contains a significant amount of chlorite. A mineral may be a single element such . The general term for the property of alignment in metamorphic rock is foliation, of which there are a number of types. The protolith for a schist is usually shale, a type of sedimentary rock. Considering that the normal geothermal gradient (the rate of increase in temperature with depth) is around 30C per kilometer in the crust, rock buried to 9 km below sea level in this situation could be close to 18 km below the surface of the ground, and it is reasonable to expect temperatures up to 500C. Foliated textures show a distinct planar character. Introduction to Hydrology and Rivers, 11a. Introduction to Hydrology and Shorelines, 14a. Gold prospectors learned that gold could be found in areas where these green rocks were present. . Textures Non-foliated or granular metamorphic rocks are those which are composed of equi-dimensional grains such as quartz or calcite. So its parent rock is a conglomerate. Examples of foliated rocks include: gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate. Soapstone is a metamorphic rock that consists primarily of talc with varying amounts of other minerals such as micas, chlorite, amphiboles, pyroxenes, and carbonates. [1], Foliated metaconglomerate is created under the same metamorphic conditions that produce slate or phyllite, but with the parent rock (protolith) being conglomerate, rather than clay. At lower pressures and temperatures, dynamic metamorphism will have the effect of breaking and grinding rock, creating cataclastic rocks such as fault breccia (Figure 6.33). When a rock is squeezed under directed pressure during metamorphism it is likely to be deformed, and this can result in a textural change such that the minerals are elongated in the direction perpendicular to the main stress (Figure 7.5). Metamorphic rock may exhibit a variety of features related to the organization and arrangement of its component materials. This effect is especially strong if the new minerals grow in platy or elongated shapes. One derived from shale may be a muscovite-biotite schist, or just a mica schist, or if there are garnets present it might be mica-garnet schist. Fractional crystallization is the opposite of partial melting. Place the thick arrows in the direction of maximum stress and the thin arrows in the direction of minimum stress. The figure below shows a metaconglomerate. Foliation in geology refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks. Block-in-matrix structures are observed in these exposures, including a large metaconglomerate block (10s m in diameter) found at . Silvery-gray, well foliated, micaceous quartz-pebble metaconglomerate and quartzite; apparent maximum thickness 700 feet. It is a soft, dense, heat-resistant rock that has a high specific heat capacity. Metamorphic rocks are those that begin as some other kind of rock, whether it's igneous, sedimentary or another metamorphic rock. The grains form a mosaic texture. Foliations typically bend or curve into a shear, which provides the same information, if it is of a scale which can be observed. Notice the sequence of rocks that from, beginning with slate higher up where pressures and temperatures are lower, and ending in migmatite at the bottom where temperatures are so high that some of the minerals start to melt. . Supplying quality educational materials for teachers, collectors and other educational organizations since 1995. The rock in the upper left of Figure 6.9 is foliated, and the microscopic structure of the same type of foliated rock is shown in the photograph beneath it. Weakly foliated: Any material: Hard, fine-grained rock: Metaconglomerate: Weakly foliated: Quartz-rich conglomerate: Strongly stretched pebbles: Amphibolite: Weakly foliated: Mafic volcanic rocks: Coarse-grained: Examples of metamorphic rock: Index Reference Lutgens and Tarbuck Ch 7 . In geology, cleavage refers to the tendency of a rock to break parallel to the alignment of the tiny mica minerals it is composed of. This is because mariposite is an ore of gold. As we're confining our observation to samples without visual aids, we may be subject to some error of identification. The same way a person may cast a shadow over another person when they stand under the sun, planets or celestial bodies that have aligned themselves cast shadows over one another as well. In gneiss, the minerals may have separated into bands of different colours. French, B.M. The metaconglomerate formed through burial metamorphism does not display any of the foliation that has developed in the metaconglomerate in Figure 10.10. Want to create or adapt OER like this? This means that the minerals in the rock are all aligned with each other. Slate exhibits slaty foliation, which is also called cleavage. This is not always the case, however. Each mineral has a specific chemical composition and a characteristic crystalline structure. The Geology.com store offers inexpensive rock collections that can be mailed anywhere in the United States or U.S. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. Bucher, K., & Grapes, R. (2011) Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks, 8th Edition. Even though the quartz crystals themselves are not aligned, the mass of quartz crystals forms a lens that does follow the general trend of alignment within the rock. This typically follows the same principle as mica growth, perpendicular to the principal stress. Seeing and handling the rocks will help you understand their composition and texture much better than reading about them on a website or in a book. A rock with visible minerals of mica and with small crystals of andalusite. The rock also has a strong slaty foliation, which is horizontal in this view, and has developed because the rock was being squeezed during metamorphism. There are many other types of specific nonfoliated metamorphic rocks, such as greenstone, eclogites and serpentines. The growth of platy minerals, typically of the mica group, is usually a result of prograde metamorphic reactions during deformation. Squeezing and heating alone (as shown in Figure 7.5) and squeezing, heating, and formation of new minerals (as shown in Figure 7.6) can contribute to foliation, but most foliation develops when new minerals are forced to grow perpendicular to the direction of greatest stress (Figure 7.6). Alignment of tabular minerals in metamorphic rocks, igneous rocks and intrusive rocks may form a foliation. Geological Structures and Mountain Building, Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition, Next: 10.3 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Metaconglomerate. There are two main types of metamorphic rocks: those that are foliated because they have formed in an environment with either directed pressure or shear stress, and those that are not foliated because they have formed in an environment without directed pressure or relatively near the surface with very little pressure at all. The rock has split from bedrock along this foliation plane, and you can see that other weaknesses are present in the same orientation. Well foliated to nearly massive quartz monzonite gneiss, generally medium-grained and even textured but locally porphyritic and pegmatitic. It is often referred to as "hard coal"; however, this is a layman's term and has little to do with the hardness of the rock. The pebbles have developed "wings" to varying degrees (e.g., white dashed ellipse). What are some of the differences between foliated rocks and nonfoliated rocks? Anthracite is the highest rank of coal. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. Schistose foliation is composed of larger minerals which are visible to the unaided eye. Not only is the mineral composition differentit is quartz, not micabut the crystals are not aligned. With wavy layering known as phyllitic foliation, these rocks often have a silky or satiny sheen, which is caused by the arrangement of very fine minerals that form as a result of the pressure applied during metamorphism. Phyllite is a foliated metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very fine-grained mica. Amphibolite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that forms through recrystallization under conditions of high viscosity and directed pressure. Massive (non-foliated) structure. Preface to the First University of Saskatchewan Edition, Second University of Saskatchewan Edition: Goals, 1.4 We Study Earth Using the Scientific Method, 1.5 Three Big Ideas: Geological Time, Uniformitarianism, and Plate Tectonics, 2.2 Forming Planets from the Remnants of Exploded Stars, 3.1 Earth's Layers: Crust, Mantle, and Core, 4.1 Alfred Wegener's Arguments for Plate Tectonics, 4.2 Global Geological Models of the Early 20th Century, 4.3 Geological Renaissance of the Mid-20th Century, 4.4 Plates, Plate Motions, and Plate-Boundary Processes, 8.3 Controls on Weathering Processes and Rates, 8.4 Weathering and Erosion Produce Sediments, 9.2 Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks, 9.4 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins, 10.4 Types of Metamorphism and Where They Occur, 10.5 Metamorphic Facies and Index Minerals, 10.6 Metamorphic Hydrothermal Processes and Metasomatism, 11.2 Materials Produced by Volcanic Eruptions, 11.7 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions, 12.5 Forecasting Earthquakes and Minimizing Impacts, 15.1 Factors That Control Slope Stability, 15.3 Preventing, Delaying, Monitoring, and Mitigating Mass Wasting, 18.1 If You Can't Grow It, You Have to Mine It, Appendix A.